Medical science

      ⭐⭐⭐ KIDNEY STONES ⭐⭐⭐ 1) DEFINITION OF KIDNEY STONES:- Kidney stones are hard, pebble-like pieces of material that form in one or both of your kidneys . 2) CAUSES OF KIDNEY STONES :-     (I) Hyperparathyroidism :- i.e increased production of parathyroid hormone.      - Hyperparathyroidism leads to hypercalcaemia i.e increased levels of calcium in the blood. This extra Calcium enters the kidney for excretion. Thus, increased concentration of calcium in kidney leads to formation of kidney stones.       - Hyperparathyroidism causes hypercalcaemia because  PTH hormone causes increased renal resorption of calcium, increased synthesis of active form of vitamin D (which increases intestinal calcium absorption), and increased resorption of the bone.         - Following conditions can cause hyperparathyroidism :-           # Noncancerous growth or cancerous growth or hyperplasia of parathyroid gland.           # Severe calcium deficiency - low blood calcium stimulates parathyr

⭐⭐  CHRONIC RENAL FAILURE ⭐⭐          ( CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE )        ( END STAGE KIDNEY DISEASE ) 1) DEFINITION OF CHRONIC RENAL FAILURE ( CRF ) :-  CRF is chronic and irreversible deterioration of kidney function for atleast  > 3 months with GFR < 15 ml/ min/ 1.73 sq metres of body surface area. 2) CAUSES OF CRF :-    (I) Glomerulonephritis :-  It is the inflammation of glomeruli. GN occurs due to various causes like - post streptococcal GN,      - As a part of autoimmune diseases like SLE, Wegener's granulomatosis ,etc     - Due to primary glomerular disease like cresentic GN, membranous GN, Diffuse proliferative GN. GN occurs due to deposition of circulating immune complexes or deposition of antibodies due to above causes which may act against antigens in glomerular basement membrane ( molecular mimicry)    (II) Chronic pyelonephritis ( reflux nephropathy ) :-       - Normally during micturition, urine doesn't go back into the ureters f

     ⭐⭐ ACUTE RENAL FAILURE ⭐⭐               ( ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY )  1) FUNCTION OF KIDNEY :-     - Kidneys help to filter and remove waste products in the blood.     - It also helps to maintain electrolyte balance.     - kidneys also make hormones that help to  control  blood pressure (Renin Angiotensin aldosterone system - RAAS), make red blood cells ( Erythropoetin) keep your bones strong and healthy  ( 1- alpha hydroxylase causes conversion of 25 -OH cholecalciferol to 1,25 - dihydroxy cholecalciferol i.e active form of vitamin D. 2) DEFINITION OF ARF :-        ARF is rapid deterioration of renal function which is enough to cause accumulation of nitrogenous wastes in body. ARF is also called as AKI i.e Acute kidney injury. 3) RIFLE  Criteria :-     (I) R = Risk.  Increase in serum creatinine by ( × 1.5 ) times the normal.                               or Urine output is < 0.5 ml / kg / hr for atleast 6 hours.     (II) I - Injury -  Increase in serum creatinine of (