Medical science

  ⭐⭐⭐ UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT BLEEDING AND HAEMATEMESIS ⭐⭐⭐ 1) DEFINITION OF HAEMATEMESIS :- Hematemesis is the vomiting of blood. It is the bleeding proximal to duodenojejunal junction i.e ligament of treitz. 2) TREATMENT OF HAEMETEMESIS :- TREATMENT IS IMPORTANT FIRST .    (I) Primary treatment -       # Patient's condition should be made stable first. Monitor Pulse, BP , respiration, consciousness, Urine output. Blood sample is taken for Hb testing.       # Body fluid replenishment by fluids & blood. ( Hb should be kept > 7-8 gm/dl.)          (II) Gastric lavage -       # Nasogastric tube (Ryle's tube) is inserted & 500 ml tap water is instilled & aspirated every 30-60 mins.      # Vasoconstriction occurs due to cool water which helps in temporary cessation of bleeding.      # It helps to clear stomach prior to endoscopy, assess the amount of bleeding.      # Forceful suction can damage mucosa.      # Tube is kept for 24 hours to asses

      ⭐⭐⭐ KIDNEY STONES ⭐⭐⭐ 1) DEFINITION OF KIDNEY STONES:- Kidney stones are hard, pebble-like pieces of material that form in one or both of your kidneys . 2) CAUSES OF KIDNEY STONES :-     (I) Hyperparathyroidism :- i.e increased production of parathyroid hormone.      - Hyperparathyroidism leads to hypercalcaemia i.e increased levels of calcium in the blood. This extra Calcium enters the kidney for excretion. Thus, increased concentration of calcium in kidney leads to formation of kidney stones.       - Hyperparathyroidism causes hypercalcaemia because  PTH hormone causes increased renal resorption of calcium, increased synthesis of active form of vitamin D (which increases intestinal calcium absorption), and increased resorption of the bone.         - Following conditions can cause hyperparathyroidism :-           # Noncancerous growth or cancerous growth or hyperplasia of parathyroid gland.           # Severe calcium deficiency - low blood calcium stimulates parathyr